Varieties of English

Varieties of English

There are millions of people around the world who speak English, with different varieties used in different regions. These difference are found both between countries (ex Australian and American English) and within countries (ex Cockney is spoken in the south of England and Geordie is spoken in the north). Each variety has its own distinct grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Both similarities and differences can be found between varieties. While these are interesting to consider, this page does not aim to outline linguistic similarities and differences, instead focusing on the social advantages and disadvantages of speakers of different varieties,  focusing on international varieties of English. 

Native and Non-Native Speaker Varieties of English

There is a tendency to separate English into native-speaker (NS) and non-native speaker NNS) varieties, with mother tongue varieties labeled as ‘standard’ and other varieties labeled as ‘non standard’. Kachru developed a model that divided the countries that English is spoken into three groups, as shown below.

Inner Circle: Countries where English is the mother tongue of most citizens, such as America and Australia.

Outer Circle: Countries where English is not the mother tongue of most citizens but is the official language of the country or has a strong historical connection to English, such as India and Singapore.

Expanding Circle: Countries where English is used as a foreign language, such as Japan and France.

In the years after Kachru published this model, there has been much debate over which countries belong in each circle and whether countries should be labeled in this way. One reason that people argue against labeling is that it gives prestige to some varieties of English while devaluing others.

Questions to Consider

Do you think English should be divided like this?
Who benefits when English is divided in this way? Who is disadvantaged?
Read this blog entry about a teacher who was disadvantaged by his non-native speaker status. What do you think about this? 

Praise for the Spread of English

Some people argue that the spread of English is something to be celebrated, as it brings the world closer to having a true lingua franca (common language), one that can be used by everyone. In his book English as a Global Language, Crystal depicts the spread as neutral and natural, focusing on the advantages of having a language that can be used worldwide. Rather than seeing English as posing an imposition on the non-English speaking world, he sees it as a language that could be used as a means to bring the world together linguistically, maintaining that it is possible to have both a globally common language and preserve local languages, which by extension preserve cultural identities.

Criticism for the Spread of English 

Using English as a world language can mean some people are socially empowered while others are disempowered. As the article above about the teacher who was disadvantaged by his non-native speaker status shows, English can be used as a means of access or denial to social and economic opportunities. Phillipson rebukes Crystal for "seeing English as symbiotically linked to progress" and ignoring the links "between global English and the processes and structures that it is involved in" (265). In his much-cited book Linguistic Imperialism, Phillipson argues that dominance is asserted and maintained by establishing and continuously reconstituting structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages. He rejects Crystal’s notion of English being a neutral language that can be used for common global good, claiming factors such as neo-colonialism and cultural hegemony prevent this. Pennycook’s Worldliness of English theory echoes Phillipson’s rejection of English as neutral, urging for cultural, political, economical and social implications to be considered before one concludes that a nation or an individual has chosen English.

Native-speakerism

Holliday defines native-speakerism as the "established belief that 'native-speaker' teachers represent a 'Western culture' from which spring the ideals both of the English language and of English language teaching methodology" (6). He warns NS English language teaching (ELT) professionals away from creating a situation in which ‘we’, the NSs, pressure ‘them’, the NNSs to think like ‘us’ and he criticizes the devaluation of NNS ELT professionals. His support of different varieties of English, NNS ELT professionals and the adaptation of materials to embrace local values is a step in the opposite direction of organizations many NS-led organizations which have worked hard to keep NSs at the top of the hierarchy, with English ownership and its associated benefits firmly in their hands. Countries such as the UK, America and Australia gain a great deal of money and power through being able to export ELT materials and the expertise of NS ELT providers throughout the world. Native-speakerism serves to protect these privileges. 

Holliday proposes we move away from English ownership, and towards acceptance. He argues that native-speakerism is evidenced through employment policies, ELT materials, work cultures and cultural stereo-typing and believes that there is a common underlying tendency for students and colleagues who are not from the English-speaking West to be seen as ‘other’, which often involves negatively contrasting the ‘other’ with the positive ‘self’. 

Questions to Consider

What do you think about Holliday's ideas? 
What are your feelings about NS and NNS language teachers?
Do you think Holliday would accuse you of native-speakerism?
How do these ideas relate to non-teaching contexts, such as business situations?

Rejecting Native-speakerism

Researchers such as Talebinezhad and Aliakbari suggest that speakers who plan to use English for international communication should receive training regardless of whether the come from NS or NNS backgrounds, as English functions differently across cultures and without training, miscommunication is more likely. They place responsibility upon NSs, citing Smith and Rafiqzad’s earlier work, which found that NSs have difficulty understanding spoken English in the international context. Further, despite the fact that a small-scale study found two thirds of non-native English speaking academics feel they are at a disadvantage to their NS counterparts when publishing (Flowerdue), NNSs are starting accept their English as good English. As Jenkins noted 15 years ago, most learners no longer believe the acquisition of a native-like accent is their ultimate goal, which is part of a shift in the goals of NNSs. Although there are students who say they want to improve their pronunciation or have a ‘native-speaker accent’, these goals are often outweighed by a stronger desire to understand and be understood. Perhaps in time NSs and NNSs alike may come to see both varieties as equal.

Some Final Thoughts

Throughout the world many different varieties of English are used. While some people willingly accept all varieties, others discriminate, placing more value on some varieties (generally those of NSs) over others (generally those of NNSs). This can lead to people having different educational opportunities (think about TOEFL/IELTS exams) and employment opportunities (some companies ask for native speakers), which in turn can lead to differences in people's financial and social opportunities. 


Questions to Consider

Have you ever felt you had an advantage over others who do not speak your language as their mother tongue?
Have you ever felt disadvantaged because English is not your mother tongue?
Do you think that anything needs to be changed (ex government policies/laws) to accommodate NNSs?

Interesting Sources for People Interested in this Field

Click on the links below if you are interested in reading more. You can also click on any of the names above that are in blue for a direct link to the person's professional home page, which you will find many sources listed.

My Bright Idea (The Observer) **Based on an interview with the famous linguist Nicholas Ostler**
Across Cultures, English is the Word (The New York Times)

Key Words

Native speaker (NS): When used in reference to English, this means someone who speaks English as their mother tongue
Non-native speaker (NNS): When used in reference to English, this means someone whose mother tongue is not English
Native-speakerism: The biased belief that native speakers are more qualified to teach their native language than non-native speakers
Lingua franca: A common language that people from different backgrounds use to communicate

Works Consulted

Crystal, D. English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. Print.

Flowerdue, J. "Attitudes of Journal Editors to Nonnative Speaker Contributions." TESOL Quarterly 35 .1 (2001): 121-150. Print.

Graddol, D. (2006) English Next. 27 Aug. 2007. Web. 25 Jun. 2013.

<http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf>.

Holliday, A. The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.

Jenkins, J. Which Pronunciation Norms and Models for English as International Language? ELT Journal. 52.2 (1998): 119-126. Print.

Kachru, B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle."English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures. Ed. R. Quirk and H. Widdowson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1985. 11-346. Print.

Pennycook, A. The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. New York: Longman, 1994. Print.

Phillipson, R. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Print.

Phillipson, R. "Voice in Global English: Unheard Chords in Crystal Loud and Clear." Applied Linguistics, 20, (1999): 265-276. Print.

Talebinezhad, M. R. & Aliakbari, M. "Basic assumptions in teaching English as an international language." The Internet TESL Journal, 7, (2001). Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <http://iteslj.org/Articles/Talebinezhad-EIL.html>.